Understanding Fundamentals of Genetic Inheritance of Cannabis.

[Frankster]

1. Characters are unitary. That is, they are discrete (purple vs. white, tall vs. dwarf).
2. Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents. Today, we call these alleles.
3. One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.
4. Gametes are created by random segregation. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of the two alleles.
5. Different traits have independent assortment. In modern terms, genes are unlinked.

According to customary terminology we refer here to the principles of inheritance discovered by Gregor Mendel as Mendelian laws, although today's geneticists also speak of Mendelian rules or Mendelian principles as there are many exceptions summarized under the collective term Non-Mendelian inheritance.


Characteristics Mendel used in his experiments

P-Generation and F1-Generation: The dominant allele for purple-red flower hides the phenotypic effect of the recessive allele for white flowers. F2-Generation: The recessive trait from the P-Generation phenotypically reappears in the individuals that are homozygous with the recessive genetic trait.

• Form of the ripe seeds (round or roundish, surface shallow or wrinkled)
• Colour of the seed–coat (white, gray, or brown, with or without violet spotting)
• Colour of the seeds and cotyledons (yellow or green)
• Flower colour (white or yellow)
• Form of the ripe pods (simply inflated, not contracted, or constricted between the seeds and wrinkled)
• Colour of the unripe pods (yellow or green)
• Position of the flowers (axial or terminal)
• Length of the stem

Law of dominance and uniformity	Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.[18]
Law of segregation	During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.
Law of independent assortment	Genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes.

Zygosity (the noun, zygote, is from the Greek zygotos "yoked," from zygon "yoke") (/zaɪˈɡɒsɪti/) is the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence. In other words, it is the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism.

A cell is said to be homozygous for a particular gene when identical alleles of the gene are present on both homologous chromosomes. The cell or organism in question is called a homozygote. True breeding organisms are always homozygous for the traits that are to be held constant.


An allele (UK: /ˈæliːl/, /əˈliːl/; US: /əˈliːl/; modern formation from Greek ἄλλος állos, "other")[1][2][3] is a variant form of a given gene,[4] meaning it is one of two or more versions of a known mutation at the same place on a chromosome. It can also refer to different sequence variations for a several-hundred base-pair or more region of the genome that codes for a protein. Alleles can come in different extremes of size. At the lowest possible end one can be the single base choice of a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP).[5] At the higher end, it can be the sequence variations for the regions of the genome that code for the same protein which can be up to several thousand base-pairs long.

Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation.

Multiple adeles
A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive.

For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles.

The Law of Segregation of genes applies when two individuals, both heterozygous for a certain trait are crossed, for example hybrids of the F1-generation. The offspring in the F2-generation differ in genotype and phenotype, so that the characteristics of the grandparents (P-generation) regularly occur again. In a dominant-recessive inheritance an average of 25% are homozygous with the dominant trait, 50% are heterozygous showing the dominant trait in the phenotype (genetic carriers), 25% are homozygous with the recessive trait and therefore express the recessive trait in the phenotype. The genotypic ratio is 1 : 2 : 1, the phenotypic ratio is 3 : 1.

The frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes (see Hardy–Weinberg principle). For a simple model, with two alleles;

 

[Frankster]

Non-Mendelian inheritance is any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not segregate in accordance with Mendel's laws. These laws describe the inheritance of traits linked to single genes on chromosomes in the nucleus. In Mendelian inheritance, each parent contributes one of two possible alleles for a trait. If the genotypes of both parents in a genetic cross are known, Mendel's laws can be used to determine the distribution of phenotypes expected for the population of offspring. There are several situations in which the proportions of phenotypes observed in the progeny do not match the predicted values.

Non-Mendelian inheritance plays a role in several disease processes. (But NOT always)

Examples:

In cases of intermediate inheritance due to incomplete dominance, the principle of dominance discovered by Mendel does not apply. Nevertheless, the principle of uniformity works, as all offspring in the F1-generation have the same genotype and same phenotype. Mendel's principle of segregation of genes applies too, as in the F2-generation homozygous individuals with the phenotypes of the P-generation appear.

In cases of co-dominance, the genetic traits of both different alleles of the same gene-locus are clearly expressed in the phenotype.
For example, in certain varieties of chicken, the allele for black feathers is co-dominant with the allele for white feathers.

When genes are located on the same chromosome and no crossing over took place before the segregation of the chromosomes into the gametes, the genetic traits will be inherited in connection, because of the genetic linkage. These cases constitute an exception to the Mendelian rule of independent assortment.

In Mendelian inheritance, genes have only two alleles, such as a and A. Mendel consciously chose pairs of genetic traits, represented by two alleles for his inheritance experiments. In nature, such genes often exist in several different forms and are therefore said to have multiple alleles. An individual, of course, usually has only two copies of each gene, but many different alleles are often found within a population. A rabbit's coat color is determined by a single gene that has at least four different alleles. They display a pattern of a dominance-hierarchy that can produce four coat colors.

If one or more genes cannot be expressed because of another genetic factor hindering their expression, this epistasis can make it impossible even for dominant alleles on certain other gene-loci to have an effect on the phenotype. An example in dog coat genetics is the homozygosity with the allele "e e" on the Extension-locus making it impossible to produce any other pigment than pheomelanin.

Genetic traits located on gonosomes sometimes show specific non-Mendelian inheritance patterns. Individuals can develop a recessive trait in the phenotype dependant on their sex—for example, colour blindness and haemophilia (see gonosomal inheritances).[6][7] As many of the alleles are dominant or recessive, a true understanding of the principles of Mendelian inheritance is an important requirement to also understand the more complicated inheritance patterns of sex-linked inheritances.

Extranuclear inheritance (also known as cytoplasmic inheritance) is a form of non-Mendelian inheritance also first discovered by Carl Correns in 1908.[8] While working with Mirabilis jalapa, Correns observed that leaf colour was dependent only on the genotype of the maternal parent. Based on these data, he determined that the trait was transmitted through a character present in the cytoplasm of the ovule. Later research by Ruth Sager and others identified DNA present in chloroplasts as being responsible for the unusual inheritance pattern observed.

According to the endosymbiont theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living organisms that were each taken up by a eukaryotic cell.[10] Over time, mitochondria and chloroplasts formed a symbiotic relationship with their eukaryotic hosts. Although the transfer of a number of genes from these organelles to the nucleus prevents them from living independently, each still possesses genetic material in the form of double stranded DNA.

It is the transmission of this organellar DNA that is responsible for the phenomenon of extranuclear inheritance. Both chloroplasts and mitochondria are present in the cytoplasm of maternal gametes only. Paternal gametes (sperm for example) do not have cytoplasmic mitochondria. Thus, the phenotype of traits linked to genes found in either chloroplasts or mitochondria are determined exclusively by the maternal parent.

Many traits are produced by the interaction of several genes. Traits controlled by two or more genes are said to be polygenic traits. Polygenic means "many genes" are necessary for the organism to develop the trait. For example, at least three genes are involved in making the reddish-brown pigment in the eyes of fruit flies. Polygenic traits often show a wide range of phenotypes.

Gene conversion can be one of the major forms of non-Mendelian inheritance. Gene conversion arises during DNA repair via DNA recombination, by which a piece of DNA sequence information is transferred from one DNA helix (which remains unchanged) to another DNA helix, whose sequence is altered. This may occur as a mismatch repair between the strands of DNA which are derived from different parents. Thus the mismatch repair can convert one allele into the other. This phenomenon can be detected through the offspring non-Mendelian ratios, and is frequently observed, e.g., in fungal crosses.

Another form of non-Mendelian inheritance is known as infectious heredity. Infectious particles such as viruses may infect host cells and continue to reside in the cytoplasm of these cells. If the presence of these particles results in an altered phenotype, then this phenotype may be subsequently transmitted to progeny.[12] Because this phenotype is dependent only on the presence of the invader in the host cell's cytoplasm, inheritance will be determined only by the infected status of the maternal parent. This will result in a uniparental transmission of the trait, just as in extranuclear inheritance.

One of the most well-studied examples of infectious heredity is the killer phenomenon exhibited in yeast. Two double-stranded RNA viruses, designated L and M, are responsible for this phenotype.

Genomic imprinting represents yet another example of non-Mendelian inheritance. Just as in conventional inheritance, genes for a given trait are passed down to progeny from both parents. However, these genes are epigenetically marked before transmission, altering their levels of expression. These imprints are created before gamete formation and are erased during the creation of germ line cells. Therefore, a new pattern of imprinting can be made with each generation.

Genes are imprinted differently depending on the parental origin of the chromosome that contains them.

Cells with genetic differences from the other cells in their body are termed mosaics. These differences can result from mutations that occur in different tissues and at different periods of development. If a mutation happens in the non-gamete forming tissues, it is characterized as somatic. Germline mutations occur in the egg or sperm cells and can be passed on to offspring. Mutations that occur early on in development will affect a greater number of cells and can result in an individual that can be identified as a mosaic strictly based on phenotype.